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When Purim (i.e., the 14th of Adar) occurs on Sunday, the fast of Esther is moved back to Thursday, Adar 11. Why isn't it moved to Friday Adar 12?
It's not as if we don't already have fast days that occur on Friday. 10 of Tevet sometimes occurs on Friday. And the fast of the 1st born on Erev Pesach is also on Friday (according to most opinions. IIRC, there are some that do make it Thursday) when Pesach occurs on Shabbat.
Why don't we do the same for Ta'anit Esther?
The Meiri, in defending the custom of Provence to fast on Friday 12 Adar against the claims of the students of the Ramban who fasted on Thursday 11 Adar, notes the claims of the students of the Ramban to be (Magen Avot 23):
אף הם משיבים שעשרה בטבת שהוא מן הצומות הקבועים, וכן הדין שהוא תענית קבוע מדברי הנביאים ונעשה על דבר של פרענות ואקדומי פורענותא לא מקדימין (מגילה ה' א) אבל תענית אסתר שאינו חובה גמורה כל כך ושאין בו דין אקדומי פורענותא דאדרבא תענית של שמחה הוא, ראוי להקדימו לחמישי כדי שלא להתענות בערב שבת, ונמצא שאתם עושים שלא כהלכה
They say that 10 Tevet is from the fixed fasts, and it is is fixed from the words of the prophets and made on a negative event, and we don't push negative events earlier (Megilla 5a) but Ta'anit Esther which is not such a full obligation and which doesn't have the rule of "don't push negative events earlier" for on the contrary it is a fast of happiness, it is better to push it earlier to Thursay so as not to fast on Friday, and hence you are acting not in accordance with Halakha.
The Meiri defends the local custom by arguing that any fast which is based in a particular Mitzva (as opposed to an arbitrary date that one chooses for a personal ascetic fast) is allowed to be observed on Friday. See there for details.
The Maggid Mishna (Ta'aniyot 5:5) quoting Geonim writes that only fast days which are occurring on their intended dates can be observed on Friday, but this fast which was supposed to be on the 13th should be pushed back to Thursday.
The Tur (OC 686) says the fast can't be held on Friday because all the extra petitionary prayers will prevent people from adequately preparing for Shabbat.
The common custom nowadays is to fast on Thursday, but the Rama (OC 686:2) notes that if there is a reason to eat on Thursday (eg. the meal at a Brit Milah) then they can have the meal on Thursday and observe the fast on Friday. (Not everyone agreed with this position.)
Ta'anit Ester is a relatively recent custom(1), so the Talmud never standardised it. Therefore, it is unsurprising that there is some variation in its observance (and even in its name, with some early sources (such as Raavyah) referring to it as תענית פורים). One of these points of variation is what to do If Purim falls out on Sunday; is the pre-holiday fast (which cannot be performed on Shabbat) pushed back to Friday, or pushed further back to Thursday.
R. Mehahem HaMeiri discusses this in his Magen Avot (which discusses and defends the customs of his native Provence)(2) in chapter 23:
שהם נוהגים כל זמן שאירע פורים באחד בשבת שמקדימין את התענית ליום חמישי שלפניו. ואנו נוהגים להקדימו לששי לבד אעפ"י שהוא ערב שבת... צוחו עלינו למה שאנו עושים שלא כהלכה וממה שראו בסוף מגלת תענית (פי"א) כל שנשבע להתענות בערב שבת ובעריו"ט הרי זו שבועת שוא ... אבל תענית אסתר שאינו חובה גמורה כל כך ושאין בו דין אקדומי פורענותא דאדרבא תענית של שמחה הוא, ראוי להקדימו לחמישי כדי שלא להתענות בערב שבת, ונמצא שאתם עושים שלא כהלכה.
He explains that their custom was to fast on the preceding Friday, and others mocked them and noted that in Megillat Ta'anit it states that if one vows to fast on Friday, the vow is inoperative. And [while bona fide fast days may be observed on Friday and we apply the dictum that we do not observe sad days earlier than necessary] Ta'anit Ester is not a bona fide obligation that would lead us to overrule the usual no fasting on Friday rule, and furthermore, it is a happy day, so the dictum of not observing sad days earlier than necessary doesn't apply.
That is their reasoning. Meiri himself defends his practice, explaining that the Megilat Ta'anit is only referring to fasting for no good reason:
וא"כ זו שבמגילת תענית אנו מפרשים אותה במתענה שלא לשום כונה טובה
He cites Ra'avad as agreeing with this, but clarifying that the fast should be limited to the time that the sun is up:
ואף הרב הגדול הראב"ד כך הוא דעתו אלא שהוסיף בפירושו שאע"פ שמתענה ומשלים דוקא שלא לאכול בעוד שהחמה בעולם, ואף על פי שהיא בשקיעתה אחר שדמדומי חמה עדין נוצצים, אבל מששקעה החמה לגמרי שאינו אלא תוספות אינו נמנע מלאכול מתורת תענית, שאין תוספות לתענית במקום שתוספות שבת לוקה, וכתב בלשון זה: ולזו נהגו בתענית אסתר שחל להיות בערב שבת שאוכלין תיכף ליציאתם מבית הכנסת ואין ממתינין עד חשיכה.
R. Mordekhai b. Hillel (Megillah remez 776) is of the opinion that the fast should be observed on Thursday as opposed to Friday, since on Friday people are busy preparing for Shabbat:
ן ומה שאנו מקדימין התענית ליום ה' כשחל פורים אחד בשבת מפרש שם מפני שאין יכול לקובעו בע"ש מפני שהן טרודין לטרוח בכבוד שבת
(1) Yes, I am familiar with Rabbenu Tam (cited in Rishonim to Megillah 2a), but that does not seem to be historically correct, and it is contradicted by the Yerushalmi. Yes I am familiar with the Sh'iltot, but that is a later addition.
(2) Yes, I know he was from Languedoc. (Its close enough).
The answer would be that the days that we fast on Friday are days that fall on Friday normally. Once the fast is being moved, then we do not move it to Erev Shabbat, because of the conflict with Shabbat. Since we are moving it anyway, we move it to Thursday.
HALACHAS (LAWS) OF FAST OF ESTHER
If the 13th falls on Shabbat, we don't fast that day, due to the honor of Shabbat. The fast is not even held on Friday, since this would adversely affect Shabbat preparations. Rather, we observe the fast on Thursday, the 11th of Adar.
Normally, when a fast falls on Shabbat, we delay the fast until Sunday—but Purim wouldn't be so festive if we were fasting on that day . . . so instead we fast on the Thursday beforehand. In honor of the Shabbat, we even refrain from fasting on Friday. (If, however, you forget to fast on Thursday, you should fast on Friday.)
Bais Yosef Orach Chaim 686 quotes Rashi, that there were some righteous people who fasted both on Thursday (with the Community), and on Friday (on their own). Rashi proceeds to call them "Fools". It's a very enlightening Rashi, for he explains that a deed that is only done due to Minhag, you cannot be "Machmir" more than the Minhag. For as that Chumra is not part of the Minhag, there is no benefit in doing it. Think it through clearly.
It's a very enlightening Rashi, for he explains that a deed that is only done due to Minhag, you cannot be "Machmir" more than the Minhag Interesting , but not exactly what he says. Rather he says that it is silly to be mahmir for something that is neither biblical nor rabbinic, but a mere minhag: