What references, if any, are there to synagogues or non-temple organized worship in the ancient Israel

Question

Synagogue worship appears to be relatively common in the Christian New Testament (although perhaps little is known about what actually went on in the synagogues, I don't know a whole lot of details). But I have heard little to nothing about non-temple worship during the time that the nation of Israel was in the land. Is there anything in the Bible (or perhaps Josephus or other historical sources) to suggest that synagogues existed pre-exile?

I have also heard that scholars tend to think that synagogues did not start until the diaspora; is there any good evidence of this?

Answer 1

Jewish sources suggesting that synagogues existed in pre-exilic times include:

• Targum Yonasan on Shemos 18:20 implies that synagogues already existed in the time of Moshe.

ונתן: וְתַזְהַר יַתְהוֹן יַת קְיָימַיָא וְיַת אוֹרַיְיתָא וּתְהוֹדַע לְהוֹן יַת צְלוֹתָא דְיֵיצְלוּן בְּבֵית כְּנִשְׁתְּהוֹן וְיַת אוֹרְחָא דְּיַבְקְרוּן לְמָרִיעִין וּדְיַהֲכוּן לְמִיקְבּוֹר מֵתַיָא וּלְמִגְמוֹל בָּהּ חִיסְדָא וְיַת עוּבְדָא וְשׁוּרַת דִּינָא וּדְיַעַבְדוּן מִלְגַו לְשׁוּרָתָא לְרַשִׁיעַיָין:

• Pesikta Rabbati 26 (also Yalkut Shimoni 262) mention that Tsephaniah prophesied in the synagogues to announce his messages:

ירמיה היה אחד משלשה נביאים שנתנבאו באותו הדור, ירמיהו היה מתנבא בשווקים, צפניה בתוך בתי כנסיות, וחולדה אצל הנשים.

• Megilla 29a explains Ezekiel 11:16 as being referrence to synagogues:

יחזקאל יא, טז - ואהי להם למקדש מעט אמר רבי יצחק אלו בתי כנסיות ובתי מדרשות שבבבל

• Radak and also Rashi on Jer. 39:8 explains that “beit ha'am” were synagogues.

ואת בית העם. בתי כנסיות - רש''י

ואת בית העם - זה בית הכנסת. - רד"ק

After the destruction of the first beit hamikdash, the Anshei knesset hagedolah gathered the work of the prophets into the synagogue, which has become central to the life of every iehudi.

• Esther Rabbah, Petichta 11 says:

אם אין בתי כנסיות ומדרשות אין הקדוש ברוך הוא משרה שכינתו בעולם

• Rashi and Metsudot Dovid allude this too in Tehilim 74:8

אמרו בלבם נינם יחד. נינם מושליהם וכן (לעיל ע''ב) ינון שמו, ואחריתו יהיה מנון (משלי כ''ט) כל מושליהם מחשבה א' להם הראשונים כאחרונים להזדווג לפטרונם של ישראל תחלה ואח''כ יזדווגו להם ותדע שהרי שרפו כל מועדי אל שהיו בארץ כל בתי וועד שלו, פלשתים החריבו שילה נבכדנאצר החריב בית ראשון ואחרים החריבו בית שני - רש''י

כל מועדי אל. כל המקומות המיועדות לה' בהכ"נ ובהמ"ד - מצודות דוד

EDIT 1: Other ancient sources indicating synagogues in pre-exilic times :

• Josephus states that the origin of the Synagogue origins with the direct institution by Moses (see Contra Apionem 2.175):

for he did not suffer the guilt of ignorance to go on without punishment, but demonstrated the law to be the best and the most necessary instruction of all others, permitting the people to leave off their other employments, and to assemble together for the hearing of the law, and learning it exactly, and this not once or twice, or oftener, but every week; which thing all the other legislators seem to have neglected (translation by William Whiston).

• Ando Also Philo (Hypothetica 7.12–13).

7.12 What then did he (Moses) do? He required them to assemble in the same place on these seventh days, and sitting together in a respectful and orderly manner hear the laws read so that none should be ignorant of them. 7. 13. And indeed they do always assemble and sit together, most of them in silence except when it is the practice to add something to signify approval of what is read. But some priest who is present or one of the elders reads the holy laws to them and expounds them point by point till about the late afternoon, when they depart having gained both expert knowledge of the holy laws and considerable advance in piety.

EDIT 2: Scholarly resources:

1. D. Binder argues that the mention of the sanctuary of Casiphia in Ezra 8:17 refer to what would be called synagogue (see "Into the Temple Courts: The Place of the Synagogues in the Second Temple Period". (SBL, 1999, p. 135)
2. A. Menes argues that Joshua 22 provides early evidence for synagogues (see "Tempel und Synagoge", pp 268–76)
3. J. Morgenstern uses Psalm 74:8 in support of pre-exilic origin of synagogues (Julian Morgenstern, “The Origin of the Synagogue", Studi Orientalistici II (1956), 192-201)
4. Von Waldow suggest that the synagogue begin as a response to Josiah’s reforms (see "“The Origin of the Synagogue Reconsidered" in "From Faith to Faith: Essays in Honor of Donald G. Miller", Wipf & Stock Publishing, 1979).
5. L. Finkelstein (in The Origin of the Synagogue, PAR, vol 1, 192AJ8-30) mentions linguistic evidence for synagogues in early prophetic institutions. He wrote (p. 52):

Seems far more logical to assume that (...) about the end of seventh century, the prophetic gatherings of which we catch so fleeting a glipse in the incident of the Shunamite woman had already developed into well-organized prayer-meetings.

For further reading I would recommend:

• The Ancient Synagogue from its Origins to 200 C.E by Anders Runesson (Brill, 2010). It presents ancient inscriptions, as well as litterary and archaeological evidences to synagogues.