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Many (most?) piyyutim have some sort of rhyme to them. Unlike alphabetic acrostics, for example, rhyming does not appear in Tanach. What is the earliest source of rhymes in Jewish texts?
(If R' Elazar HaKalir was the son of R' Shimon bar Yochai, as some maintain, he was probably the first to use rhyming. But there are many who argue with this claim.)
There is rhyming in Tanach. For example:
Genesis 4:23
וַיֹּאמֶר לֶמֶךְ לְנָשָׁיו: עָדָה וְצִלָּה שְׁמַעַן קוֹלִי \ נְשֵׁי לֶמֶך הַאְזֵנָּה אִמְרָתִי \ כִּי אִישׁ הָרַגְתִּי לְפִצְעִי \ וְיֶלֶד לְחַבֻּרָתִי
Deuteronomy 32:1-2, 6
וְתִשְׁמַע הָאָרֶץ, אִמְרֵי-פִי \ יַעֲרֹף כַּמָּטָר לִקְחִי \ תִּזַּל כַּטַּל אִמְרָתִי
הֲלוֹא-הוּא אָבִיךָ קָּנֶךָ \ הוּא עָשְׂךָ וַיְכֹנְנֶךָ
Proverbs 6:9-10
עַד-מָתַי עָצֵל תִּשְׁכָּב \ מָתַי תָּקוּם מִשְּׁנָתֶךָ \ מְעַט שֵׁנוֹת \ מְעַט תְּנוּמוֹת \ מְעַט חִבֻּק יָדַיִם לִשְׁכָּב
Additional examples can be found in
Ha'Azinu and in V'Zoht ha'Bracha. [likchi - imrati; k's'irim - v'chirvivim; kanecha - vayechonenecha; yesovevenhu - y'vonenehu - yitzrenu; tumecha - v'urecha - chasidecha; etc.] Think of Shirat Devorah (Shoftim 5) [chadashim - she'arim; mashabim - la'she'arim; lakachu - nilchamu. Also Shmuel Bet 22 (sal'i - um'tzudati - u'mfalti).
Then of course most of Yeshayahu and in Trei Asar. [e.g. Yeshayahu 1: petza - v'chabura - u'maka tri'a; 3 (ha'avasim - v'hashvisim - v'hasaharonim; ha'machalatzot - v'hama'atafot- v'hamitpachot). (Source)
The Wikipedia article on Biblical Poetry contains additional information.
Recommended reading: "The Art of Biblical Poetry" by Robert Alter
